Comparing the Ideologies of Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim, and Max Weber Essay Example

Comparing the Ideologies of Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim, and Max Weber Paper Comparing the Ideologies of Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim, and Max Weber Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim, and Max Weber were three historical sociologists. Their views have become world renown and have shaped many ways of interpreting the social structure of many modern societies. This essay will take a glimpse into the three sociologists’ ideals and expose the similarities and differences they may have. Karl Marx’s view of society was based around the economy. All other social structures according to Marx, such as religion, family values, and politics stem from the base, the economy. Religion played no part at all in Marx’s sociological views. He is known as an atheist. He believed that religion was nothing more than a burden on society. â€Å"The economy that forms from the means of production results in the division of labor and forms property† (Simon 1). Division of labor can be described as the way in which tasks are divided in a society. Certain people are assigned certain tasks which help to make sure that the social structure progresses smoothly. As society becomes more advanced, the division of labor becomes more advanced, because more tasks become necessary for society to stably exist. We will write a custom essay sample on Comparing the Ideologies of Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim, and Max Weber specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Comparing the Ideologies of Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim, and Max Weber specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Comparing the Ideologies of Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim, and Max Weber specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Therefore, in Marx’s opinion, the economy grows and advances society which fuels the division of labor that is necessary for harmonious living. Marx believed that social struggle was the main cause of social evolution. In a society there is always a group that is in some way oppressed. If we look back just a few hundred years we see this in slavery, and before that serfdom. So how does oppression promote social change? â€Å"It is the ruling economic class that determines the dominant ideology in a society†¦ And it is class interest that the proletariat must oppose with revolution. †(Simon 2). The upper class in society rules over all the lower classes. When the oppression becomes an unbearable horror for the lower class, they must revolt, according to Marx. We saw this with both given examples. Serfs often fled from their lords, and slaves sought refuge in non-slave states and sometimes even killed their owners. In the case of slavery, there was a complete societal split between the north and the south in America. The main dispute between the two sides was the subject of slavery. But if not for the slaves revolting and feeing, maybe no action would have been taken. This is Marx’s view of social evolution at its finest. The lower class fought for social freedom, and American society was forever changed. So basically, Marx’s cycle of social change is simply Oppression, revolution, uprising, and then the cycle repeats itself as another lower class becomes oppressed. Durkheim believed that social order is obtained through social integration, which is the extent to which the members of a society are held together. â€Å"Durkheim advances his theory of social transition where he argues that social order is maintained through social integration and regulations in a social equilibrium. All nations develop normative behavior patterns and belief systems in the evolutionary change process. During the transitional period the diffusion of new norms and values disrupts the equilibrium of traditional societies. †(Zhao 2). Durkheim believed that society is held together by social integration, but when society is evolving, chaos takes over until new social norms are set. After these social norms are integrated into the new society, social equilibrium is once again achieved; that is until the next social evolution. This in between stage of chaotic change is fueled by what Durkheim called anomie. Anomie is described as a breakdown of social norms regulating individual behavior and social interaction. †(Zhao 4). Durkheim claimed that is human nature to act in a chaotic manner and to seek evolution. The only way he believed that order was possible was through social integration. Religion was a factor in the sociological views of Durkheim. â€Å"Religion, in this ma nner, contributes to the constitution and protection of social order by supplying a moral order. That is to say that ‘since society will always require periodic reaffirmation, religion is an indispensable, permanent social fixture. †(Mazman 10). Durkheim does not hint whether he himself is religious or not, he simply states that religion is necessary to have social integration. He claims that a moral order is necessary in society. It is a set list of rights and wrongs for people to live by. This order is never changed or even questioned by the members of society in times of peace. This moral order cannot simply be insisted by a ruler of some sort, it is much more complex than that. The moral order must come from an unquestionable source. This is why religion is necessary. With religion ruling people, they are threatened not with a punishment in this life, but with eternal damnation. People fear what they do not understand; therefore religion is the only thing that can provide absolute social order. A higher being that no person can see or hear cannot be questioned. The fear of eternal punishment will force a large majority of members of society to submit to the moral and social order. Durkheim insists that religion is one of the greatest ways to prevent anomie which leads to the inevitable society revolutionizing chaos. Max Weber greatly opposed Karl Marx’s views on religion and economy. Weber believed that the economy was certainly not even close to the center of society. â€Å"Economies result from communities, which are arranged in such a way that goods, tangible and intangible, symbolic and material, are distributed. Such a distribution is always unequal and necessarily involves power. †(Simon 8). So in Weber’s opinion material possessions are the root of inequality. Nothing is distributed equally and therefore, leads to social injustice and in some cases oppression. Weber believed that religion was responsible for change in society. â€Å"For Weber, religion, because it calls forth a type of personality through beliefs in ethical values, affects social life and interactions. These ethical values and religious ideas, in turn, are affected by social, economic and political conditions in a given society. †(Mazman 13). Weber’s view on religion is similar to that of Durkheim. Weber believed that religion gave society a set moral order. Weber also claimed that as society advanced the religious views advanced to somewhat modernize the social order. Weber’s work is therefore an invitation to see the history of political institutions, the history of religions or the history of morals as guided by a diffuse program aiming at defining institutions, rules, etc. which will most efficiently respect the dignity and vital interests of all. †(Boudon 6) Weber also dug even deeper. He claimed that certain religions prospered more than ot hers. He actually did prove this. Weber showed that Protestants had the best religion, not in the sense of religious views, but socially and economically. Protestantism provided modern individuals with coherent, meaningful, ethical conduct in terms of seeking salvation and God’s blessing in their worldly activities. †(Mazman 13). The Protestants believed in vocation. They believed that whatever occupation they had in life was not simply by chance, but they were called to it. They were what most would call ‘workaholics’ who dedicated every free second of their time to work. This made the Protestants statistically the most financially well-off group in most societies. This goes back to Weber’s view of the social structure. The Protestants were the wealthiest so they would be the leaders of society. So as I have shown, these three sociologists, Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim, and Max Weber, had world renowned views of society. They all had points that were unquestionable yet others that were flaky at best. We often saw views of each man overlapping. One cannot help but to ponder what if another sociologist came along and took the best parts of their works and put the pieces together. Would the perfect sociological view be formed? Only time can tell. ?

Chlorine From Periodic Table of the Elements

Chlorine From Periodic Table of the Elements Atomic Number: 17 Symbol: Cl Atomic Weight: 35.4527 Discovery: Carl Wilhelm Scheele 1774 (Sweden) Electron Configuration: [Ne] 3s2 3p5 Word Origin: Greek: khloros: greenish-yellow Properties: Chlorine has a melting point of -100.98Â °C, boiling point of -34.6Â °C, density of 3.214 g/l, specific gravity of 1.56 (-33.6Â °C), with a valence of 1, 3, 5, or 7. Chlorine is a member of the halogen group of elements and directly combines with almost all of the other elements. Chlorine gas is a greenish yellow. Chlorine figures prominently in many organic chemistry reactions, particularly in substitutions with hydrogen. The gas acts as an irritant for respiratory and other mucous membranes. The liquid form will burn the skin. Humans can smell as low an amount as 3.5 ppm. A few breaths at a concentration of 1000 ppm is usually fatal. Uses: Chlorine is used in many everyday products. It is used for disinfecting drinking water. Chlorine is used in the production of textiles, paper products, dyes, petroleum products, medicines, insecticides, disinfectants, foods, solvents, plastics, paints, and many other products. The element is used to manufacture chlorates, carbon tetrachloride, chloroform, and in the extraction of bromine. Chlorine has been used as a chemical warfare agent. Sources: In nature, chlorine is only found in the combined state, most commonly with sodium as NaCl and in carnallite (KMgCl36H2O) and sylvite (KCl). The element is obtained from chlorides by electrolysis or via the action of oxidizing agents. Element Classification: Halogen Chlorine Physical Data Density (g/cc): 1.56 ( -33.6 Â °C) Melting Point (K): 172.2 Boiling Point (K): 238.6 Appearance: greenish-yellow, irritating gas. At high pressure or low temperature: red to clear. Isotopes: 16 known isotopes with atomic masses ranging from 31 to 46 amu. Cl-35 and Cl-37 are both stable isotopes with Cl-35 as the most abundant form (75.8%).Atomic Volume (cc/mol): 18.7 Covalent Radius (pm): 99 Ionic Radius: 27 (7e) 181 (-1e) Specific Heat (20Â °C J/g mol): 0.477 (Cl-Cl) Fusion Heat (kJ/mol): 6.41 (Cl-Cl) Evaporation Heat (kJ/mol): 20.41 (Cl-Cl) Pauling Negativity Number: 3.16 First Ionizing Energy (kJ/mol): 1254.9 Oxidation States: 7, 5, 3, 1, -1 Lattice Structure: Orthorhombic Lattice Constant (Ã…): 6.240 CAS Registry Number: 7782-50-5 Interesting Trivia: Chlorine leaks in containers are detected using ammonia. Ammonia will react with the chlorine and form a white mist above the leak.The most common natural chlorine compound on Earth is sodium chloride or table salt.Chlorine is the 21st most abundant element in the Earths crustChlorine is the third most abundant element in the Earths oceansChlorine gas was used as a chemical weapon during World War I. Chlorine is heavier than air and would form a deadly layer in low-lying foxholes and trenches. References: Los Alamos National Laboratory (2001), Crescent Chemical Company (2001), Langes Handbook of Chemistry (1952), CRC Handbook of Chemistry Physics (18th Ed.)

LAW Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

LAW - Essay Example Therefore, Grapes & Vines Winery could have delivered the wine anytime before May 1, as the contract did not limit their duty to perform only on May 1. However, they chose to do it in the last possible day – May 1. The fact that the delivery van was involved in an accident does not constitute an objective impediment to performing the contract (destruction of the subject matter of the contract cannot be used as an excuse in this case), as the winery most certainly had in stock enough bottles of wine to deliver them later that day to Elin. This is a certain fact, as the bottles were delivered in the afternoon of May 2. Moreover, immediately after the accident, the company should have called Elin and ask her if she would agree to a delivery of the bottles later that day or maybe on May 2. This would have solved the problem and avoid the unpleasant situation. Therefore, the Court should discharge the contract due to its material alteration and failure to substantially perform on b ehalf of the plaintiff (Grapes & Vines Winery). In this case, Elin’s contractual obligations would be also discharged and her not accepting the plaintiff’s tender later than the due date should not be considered as breach of contract. 2. I believe that in this case, time is not of the essence of the contract.

JAPANESE CIVILIZATION PowerPoint Presentation Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

JAPANESE CIVILIZATION - PowerPoint Presentation Example According to the historical background of the Kamakura, religion was their center of governance and all their decisions were also to run in accordance with their religious rules. Hover much they tried to keep and safeguard their religious beliefs and policies, they still faced some challenges that almost messed up their religion (Kimura 206). The monks were to give directions as they follow but due to the high rate of women seduction, they could not make it as the monks fell into women trap hence leading to direction loss. As per my perception, the development of the Kamakura was mainly based on the stability of Buddhism as a religion. This is so because they had strong belief in their religion hence giving all the powers to their religious leaders. It can therefore be assumed that at one time, the Kamakura faced a lot of difficulties in relation to governance after the parting of some monks. The adulterous also lead to religion break up and this further in turn led to group split out. The Kamakura was therefore separated into different groups based on their beliefs and trust hence leading to the formation or re-establishment of religious beliefs and policies that were to be maintained at all

A literature review of Genetically Modified crops Dissertation

A literature review of Genetically Modified crops - Dissertation Example In 2008, GM crops were planted on almost 9% of the available farming land in different parts of the world (James 2008). According to The World Health Organization or WHO, genetically modi?ed organisms are â€Å"derived from organisms whose genetic material (DNA) has been modified in a way that does not occur naturally, e.g. through the introduction of a gene from a different organism. Currently available GM foods stem mostly from plants, but in the future foods derived from GM microorganisms or GM animals are likely to be introduced on the market. Most existing genetically modified crops have been developed to improve yield, through the introduction of resistance to plant diseases or of increased tolerance of herbicides† (WHO 2013). The technology used for creating GM organisms allows selective genes to be relocated from one organism into another of the same species, and between species that are non-related. Such processes are used for creating genetically modi?ed plants, whic h in turn produce GM food crops. The crop characteristics marked as desired for GM crops and aimed by genetic engineering are from those that are targeted by processes followed during conventional breeding. However, genetic engineering gives scope for direct transfer of genetic codes across different species owing to which characters that were earlier difficult to breed through natural processes, is now created easily under controlled conditions. Currently there are three types of traits clearly distinguished in GM crops. These comprise of the first-generation GM crops displaying vast improvements in agronomic characters, as for example, better resistance to diseases and parasites. Second-generation GM crops tend to show improved quality characteristics, as for example, increased levels of nutrient contents in the resulting food products. Third-generation crops tend to show characters with special productivity aimed at industrial or medicinal purposes (von Braun 2007). The potential benefits of GM crops are diverse. In the current context, that shows decreasing natural resources, it is important to maintain an increase in productivity values within worldwide agriculture for ensuring enough food availability and raw materials for a persistently increasing population (von Braun 2007). Various environmental benefits are also associated with GM crops. Besides these, technologies associated with the new seed technology have played significant role for increasing rural income and alleviating poverty levels in developing countries (Fan et al. 2005). Furthermore, GM crops that have greater nutritional values would help in the improvement of overall consumer health (Unnevehr et al. 2007). Despite these potential benefits, the creation and use of GM crops have raised strong opposition, especially in parts of Europe, while also spreading over to other countries through media messages, trade regulations, and activism by the various antibiotech groups (Paarlberg 2008). The primary issues concern potential health and environmental hazards, while reservations are also expressed on the possible negative social ramifications (Altieri 2001). As for example, many of the activists feel that rampant use of GM technology in the developing nations could result in undermining the traditional agricultural practice that is based on knowledge setups. With rising privatization in the arena of researches related to crop improvement and

Adaptation to Climate Change

Adaptation to Climate Change ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE CHANGE; AN ISSUE THAT MUST NOT BE OVERLOOKED There are many compelling questions one can ask about how climate science experts and economic experts interpret the change in climate and man’s contribution to it. To argue that our earth is not warming is futile; nonetheless, the risk of trying to prevent it is very high. It is only useful if we try to adapt. In the field of climate change, scientists denounce non-science experts claiming that these are technical questions for those who understand the theories and concepts. The controversy over whether global warming exists or not, is undoubtedly, a scientific question. However, deciding whether we should intervene, and if so, what actions to embrace is clearly not a scientific question. It is an economic question, which puts us firmly in the realm of economic experts. For any continuing event, there are five theory responses: maximizing, inverting, preventing, adapting and ignoring. Supposing we do not want to maximize or ignore global warming, the three applicable options are reversing, prevention (known as â€Å"mitigation† in the climate change idiom) or adaptation. Right up until the present day, the favoured option has been prevention. For a period of twenty-five years, public servants have debated only this response. Margaret Thatchers speech to the UN assembly (in 1989) throws light on the beginning of this approach. Later came Al Gore and Kyoto with the Stern Review adding to the list. Currently, David Cameron and Edward Miliband debate about whether or not climate change is a national security threat and which party is best placed to prevent this threat. There are good scientific reasons to believe that prevention (or even inverting) is a realistic option. Since the `90s there have been tremendous breakthroughs with our ability to reduce chlorofluorocarbons. Despite this, there are those who believe that the past twenty-five years have brainwashed us into believing that our potential and ability to prevent global warming by reducing Carbon emissions is much less compared to some Sulphur emissions and other pollutants. These years of framing tremendous exorbitant prevention schemes only took some few degrees centigrade off global warming, in comparison with the rise of three to four degrees. This puts the minimum price of such vanity at 5 per cent of Gross Domestic Product each year, with some models recommending that the definite cost is realistically more than 20 per cent. Scientific inclined people reply by saying we must increase our attempt to prevent global warming from advancing. However, China and India and America will disagree and in economically desolate Britain there are no chances requesting for more. Considering prevention were realistic, policy analysis recommends it would be dreadful an idea to consider. At the moment, according to government criteria in the UK, there is difficulty in trying to get access to a global warming mitigation scheme that matches cost with benefits. As an example, the rediscovery of the strategy for the renewal of energy having a twenty-year cost of fifty-seven billion pounds to seventy billion pounds but only benefits around four billion pounds to five billion pounds. The problem is so worse that couple of years back the guidance for the ministerial sign-off of policy impact assessments amended the strategy so that ministers no longer proclaim that their assertion that benefits will exceed costs. At the present moment, they sign to acknowledge they solely assume that benefits â€Å"justify† costs. The few analysis that found more positive net profits, such as the Climate Change Act of 2008, reckoned a global consensus that has not been implemented. On that note, it is absurd to recommend that the UK’s doing ten times more to prevent warming proceedings could perhaps be an outstanding scheme, even though it will be possible to work. The economics of preventing global warming has simply not been up to the task. Prior to the famous Stern Review, economic experts observing the sector thought that adapting to the change in climate patterns should be the pivotal strategy. What â€Å"adaptation† will suggest in a practical way is that we cut the risk of spending too much money, and the program will be less complicated. There are some UK Green schemes that influence the public to use extravagant energy and make them pay out incompetent immense sum of capital to cater for insulation. These Green systems also tax their traveling in ways that force them to execute reduced trade and craft which does not only hamper the growth, but also make adaptation very hard and unyielding. In the year 2012 the UK authority acquired forty-five billion pounds from fuel taxes, which corresponds to 2.9% GDP. While UK authorities evaluate green schemes will increase medium-scaled vocation invoice by thirty-eight per cent over the next sixteen years. On the contrary, the most outstanding project is by instigatin g GDP to allow the folks to be more prone to behaving in ways that are friendly to their habitat Moreover, the public should not misuse their wealth, on mitigation attempts while fragmenting capital for adaptation. If the UK authorities do not have enough funds and they should opt between money for energy and money for flooding protection, it must be considered a walkover. There is the need to investigate several ways to adapt to the warming of our globe with likely brutal climate. These strategies should change the methods of supporting our rivers by building flood defence systems, developing of crops that can be tolerant to drought and using water sources that are scarce in a more efficient manner. Adaptation would not be inexpensive or straightforward. However, it will be more attainable than prevention and will cost so much less. Additionally, adaptation is highly safer than prevention on two significant techniques. Firstly, we do expect that global warming will not occur as we presume. Ten years earlier, scientists studying climate patterns have scuffled to explain that the temperature has not sprung in view of the late 80s. They persist it does not make any discrepancy to their indelible tale about whether warming advancement exists, and what their consequential effects are. Moreover, perchance, it could be right. Nevertheless it makes a change to policy assessment.   If, in 1997, it was clear that abstaining from mitigation of climate patterns could not cause any rise in temperatures, there should have been a concern to adjust the way we assess our schemes. Virtually no scheme which has no effect within three to five years is a good one to start, by virtue of how we discount our future. Secondly, adaptation is much safer considering we only know nearly insufficient facts about prevention strategies and may suffer a great loss if they do not function, or they might develop delinquent long duration response. When we adapt only when there is a need, there is a reduction in waste of time and capital that is crucial to sustainable development.   At the point of finality, adaptations make us prosperous and have richer tastes. It seems plausible that we can devise means that can stop global warming from getting out of hand. However, we have wasted twenty-five years in trying to prevent warming of our globe, and have merely scraped the plain. In that initiative, we have lost untold large sums of money and are planning to waste even more. We do not have to disbelief the real existence of climate change to reject the notion that adaptation is a not a good tactic. Our method of prevention has perished, adaptation is the key. WORD COUNT: 1235 BISMARK NTIM-PEASAH KOFI BIBLIOGRAPHY: . Australian Broadcasting Corporation, viewed 28 November 2014, .GOV.UK, viewed November 2014, viewed 28 November 2014, .The Guardian, viewed 2 December 2014, .Scientific American, viewed 4th December 2014, .European Commision, viewed 7 December 2014, .The Telegraph, viewed 7 December 2014, . The Telegraph, viewed 7 December 2014, .Wikipedia, viewed 11 January 2014,

Constructions of Gender and the Treatment of PTSD within the U.S. Milit

Constructions of Gender and the Treatment of PTSD within the U.S. Military The U.S. military shows a surprising sensitivity and openness to the emotional difficulties of being stationed abroad, especially in a conflict zone, and it is making great efforts towards preventing/easing depression and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) among its members (although it varies by branch). Group therapy is made available at Veteran's Administration hospitals and the Department of Veteran Affairs is connected to the National Center for Post-traumatic Stress Disorder, which provides many helpful resources including literature that speaks openly about "private," "domestic," and "relational" issues. This is in shocking contrast with the predominant military culture which is hyper-masculine and hierarchical. The question of whether or not you have "been in" is not asked to determine your understanding of military lingo and procedure; what is being asked is: Are you one of us? Romantic, and even realistic, accounts of combat almost always include stories about the particular love and selfless dedication that develops between soldiers and their buddies. Servicemembers frequently describe their units as families. "Basically, this was their family for the last thirteen months," said First Sergeant Dana Morgan, describing the 140 th Quartermaster company just returned from Iraq. He was attending their welcome home ceremony at Fort Totten in New York. The 128 reservists of the 140 th spent thirteen months (March 2003 - April 2004) in Iraq providing laundry and bath services to other troops. Pacifists often drudge up the dirty details in order to de-mystify, and thus de-glorify, war. It is difficult to deny, howeve... ...sonal interview: April 4, 2004, Fort Totten, New York. Katz, Lori S., Sexual Trauma Education and Assessment for the Primary Care Provider , Veterans' Association Healthcare System. Morgan, Dana. First Sergeant, U.S. Army. Personal interview: April 4, 2004, Fort Totten, New York. Newland, Miriam. Women Veterans Coordinator, Military Order of the Purple Heart. Personal interview: March 24, 2004, New York Harbor Veterans' Administration, New York City. Ignatieff, Michael. The Warriors Honor: Ethnic War and the Modern Conscience , Henry Holt and Company, New York: 1997 Sadler, Anne, et al. "Factors Associated with Women's Risk of Rape in the Military Environment," American Journal of Industrial Medicine , 2003. Scotti, Mike. Former First Lieutenant, U.S. Marine Corps. Personal interview: April 13 and April 26, 2004, New York City.

Quantification of Proteins in Solution by Spectrophotometer Essay

Introduction: Absorption spectroscopy is a common method for finding the concentration of proteins or protein complexes in a solution. Proteins absorb light at specific wavelengths and can be defined by the equation A = log (Io/I). This equation states that an absorbance at a specific wavelength, A is equal to the log of the ratio of incident light intensity (Io), to transmitted light intensity (I). A spectrophotometer can be used quantitatively and qualitatively. A spectrophotometer is used qualitatively to obtain an absorption spectrum, which can be obtained by plotting the absorbance values, over the range of wavelengths tested for the solution. This helps to find out the suitable wavelength that the compound absorbs maximum. And the spectrophotometer is used quantitatively by using the Beer-Lambert Law; Log [ Io/I] = A = ÃŽ ¾cl, where ÃŽ ¾ is the molar extinction coefficient (unit = Lmol-1cm-1), helps to define the absorbance of the protein, c is the concentration of the substance (mol liter-1), and l is the path length of the light (unit = cm) through the medium. Log [Io/I] is called optical density or absorbance of the substance, and does not have units. Also, an absorption spectrum is created, which deals with absorption and wavelength (nm) of light used, with which â€Å"maximum absorption† is observed. Maximum absorption is when most of the solution particles are absorbed, and this happens at a specific wavelength. Since the Beer Lambert law is useful only for a range of wavelengths, it is not applicable to all protein solutions. In this experiment, an absolute standard was calculated using BSA, so that the concentrations of the other unknown protein solutions can be determined (Lambert et.al, 2011).The different assays used for this protein quantification were Lowry, Bradford (Coomassie Blue) and UV direct. Protein assays help to determine the amount of desired particle present (Srivastava, 2008). The aim of this lab is to understand the various aspects of spectrophotometry and its applications in biochemistry, such as quanitification of protein solutions. Methods: (Carleton University, 2012) The steps were followed without any changes made. Results: Figure1. Absorption spectrum of 6Ãâ€"10-5M p-np solution in 0.02M NaOH, for wavelength range between 330-800nm using a Novaspec spectrophotometer. Sample Calculation: c = 6Ãâ€"10-5M l = 1cm A = 1.166 The Beer Lambert equation is A = Æ cl Rearranged, Æ  = A/cl Æ  = 1.166/(6Ãâ€"10-5)*1 Æ  = 1.94Ãâ€"104 L mol-1 cm-1 Table1. Values of extinction coefficient (Lmol-1cm-1) determined using Beer-Lambert Law. Figure2. Absolute standard curve obtained for BSA test protein solution with the 3 different assays tested (Lowry, Coomassie Blue, UV). Table 2. Absorbance values recorded for different protein dilutions (2X, 5X, 10X) for the three assays used, namely Lowry, Coomassie Blue and UV direct. Sample Calculation for BSA stock protein: * Lowry Equation of line from Fig2; y = -5Ãâ€"10-7Ãâ€"2 + 0.0016x + 0.038 For 5 fold; y = 5 * 0.44 = 2.20 Substituting in equation; 2.20 = 5Ãâ€"10-7Ãâ€"2 + 0.0016x + 0.038 X1 = 1600  µg/ml = 1.6mg/ml For 10 fold; y = 10 * 0.23 = 2.30 Substituting in equation; 2.30 = 5Ãâ€"10-7Ãâ€"2 + 0.0016x + 0.038 X2 = 1600  µg/ml = 1.6mg/ml (X1 + x2)/2 = 1.6mg/ml * Coomassie Blue Equation of line from fig2; y = -7Ãâ€"10-7Ãâ€"2 + 0.002x + 0.0219 For 5 fold; y = 5 * 0.36 = 1.80 Substituting in equation; 1.80 = -7Ãâ€"10-7Ãâ€"2 + 0.002x + 0.0219 X1 = 1428.57  µg/ml = 1.4mg/ml For 10 fold; y = 10 * 0.20 = 2.00 Substituting in equation; 2.00 = -7Ãâ€"10-7Ãâ€"2 + 0.002x + 0.0219 X2 = 1428.57  µg/ml = 1.4mg/ml (x1+ x2)/2 = 1.4mg/ml * UV direct Equation of line from fig 2; y = 0.0006x + 0.0175 For 2 fold; y = 2 * 0.42 = 0.84 Substituting in equation; 0.84 = 0.0006x + 0.0175 X1 = 1374.16  µg/ml = 1.4mg/ml For 5 fold; y = 5 * 0.15 = 0.75 Substituting in equation; 0.75 = 0.0006x + 0.0175 X2 = 1179.16  µg/ml = 1.2mg/ml (x1 + x2)/2 = 1.3mg/ml Discussion: Figure 1 shows the absorption spectrum of stock solution (6Ãâ€"10-5M), p-nitrophenol and 0.02M NaOH, and from the graph it can be inferred that 400nm is the wavelength of maximum absorption because absorption is noted to be the highest at this point. Absorbance is noted to increase when wavelength increases till it reaches the point of maximum absorption, after which it decreases till it nearly reaches zero. It is best to consider wavelength of maximum absorption because stronger the intensity, the more accurate will be the readings for absorbance. As seen from table 1, the path lengths remain the same as the cuvettes used were of the same size. The Beer-Lambert Law states that Abs = Æ .c.l, where Æ  = molar extinction coefficient, c = concentration of protein solution, and l = path length of light through medium. Thus, it is noted that absorbance and path length share a directly proportional relationship, i.e. if path length increases, absorbance increases as well. It was clear ly observed in the wide and narrow test-tubes, that as the path length was doubled, the absorbance value doubled too (Srivastava, 2008). Also, from the same equation, it can be determined that absorbance and concentration share a directly proportional relationship meaning that as the concentration decreases, it directly affects the absorbance value obtained, and this value decreases too. Thus, as seen for the four cuvettes tested (in Table 1) as the concentration is halved in every cuvette, the absorbance value is halved correspondingly as well. It is known that the Beer-Lambert law says absorbance is proportional to number of absorbing molecules, and that this is valid for a variety of compounds over a wide range of concentrations. But even as the molar extinction coefficient is seen to be attributed to wavelength, it is true only for monochromatic light (Lambert et.al, 2011). The relationship can be stated as â€Å"Æ  is a measure of the amount of light absorbed per unit concentration†. Molar extinction coefficient is a constant for a particular substance, therefore according to the Beer-Lambert Law it is expected that if the concentration of the solution is halved so is the absorbance. A compound with a high molar extinction is very effective at absorbing light (of the appropriate wavelength), and hence low concentrations of a compound with a high molar extinction can be easily detected. In the values determined (Table 1), the experimental values are in accordance with the theoretical statement except for one cuvette. The cuvette no.3 with Æ  = 1.8Ãâ€"10-4 L mol-1cm-1 does not agree with the trend. Thus it can be deduced that due to experimental error, the Æ  value is inaccurate. Also, from the equation it is understood that Æ  and path-length are inversely proportional as well (i.e. Æ  = Abs/cl) that means that as path-length increases, Æ  decreases, assuming that the concentration is kept constant. But the experimental values do not agree with this statement, because it is seen that as the path-length increases so does the molar extinction coefficient, Æ . Biochemical methods are applied for to determine protein concentration in solutions. Many techniques are less used because they have limitations such as reduced sensitivity, time available for the assay, or they are highly specific about the amino acids in the protein solution being tested. But for e very protein, the component amino acids are different, so there is no single assay that can be used for quantification of all proteins. The absorbance assays use the method of testing the intensity of the color produced by the protein solutions when chemical reagents are added to it. A â€Å"standard protein† whose concentration is known, is treated using the same chemical reagents and thus an absolute standard curve is obtained (Boyer, 2000). In this experiment, the standard used was Bovine Serum Albumin (BSA). Development of color is significantly better in BSA than any other protein, and this makes it one of the most preferred test solutions for quantification of proteins (Antharavally et.al, 2008). Hence figure 2 is obtained by performing the three suitable assays on BSA to produce a standard curve, also it can be noted that only the UV direct gave a straight line passing through zero, whereas the Lowry and Coomassie Blue gave curved lines, passing through zero. Table 2 shows the absorbance values recorded, for different dilutions of the test protein in three different assays. With the help of the values obtained in Table 2, and with the equations obtained from Figure 2, the concentration of protein (mg/ml) was calculated and presented in Table 3. Since all the values in Table 3 were deduced from the equation of standard curve BSA, it is considered as the absolute standard, and the other test protein solutions are known as the relative standards. Using the values from Table 3, taking BSA as the absolute standard, the almost actual concentration of the protein (mg/ml) can be concluded, and they are 1.6 (mg/ml) for Lowry assay, 1.4 (mg/ml) for Coomassie Blue and 1.3 (mg/ml) for UV direct. For Lowry assay, the concentration value for all test proteins was 1.6 mg/ml, which must mean that the value obtained is accurate. For Coomassie blue, BSA and Hemoglobin were the same (1.4mg/ml), Ovalbumin and Lysozyme had similar values of 1.9mg/ml, and 1.8mg/ml respectively, whereas Gamma globulin showed 2.5mg/ml. The value for Gamma globulin is off because of experimental error, of spilling some of the contents from the cuvette while transferring it to the spectrophotometer for calibration. For UV direct, BSA and Ovalbumin have similar readings (1.3mg/ml and 1.5mg/ml respectively), Gamma globulin is 2.5mg/ml, but Lysozyme is 5.9mg/ml and Hemoglobin is 3.8mg/ml. The reason for this could be due to the fact that UV direct helps to identify the presence of aromatic compounds indicating that Lysozyme and Hemoglobin contain aromatic compounds present in them. The Lowry protein assay is the most common and one of the more sensitive, but it is time consuming, on the other hand Coomassie blue (the Bradford assay) is much more sensitive as compared to Lowry, and requires less time too. They both show change of color with proteins. As for UV direct method, it is one of the faster methods too, and it is helpful to identify aromatic compounds because aromatic residues absorb 280nm light (Boyer, 2000). The Lowry procedure can detect protein levels as low as 5 µg (Boyer, 2000). It depends on the color development by the reagent Folin-Ciocalteu. Peptide bonds are formed under alkaline Cu2+ conditions and reduced from Folin-Ciocalteu phosphomolybdate-phosphotungsten by aromatic amino acids (tyrosine and tryptophan) to heteropolymolybdenum blue. The standard curve obtained with BSA helps to determine concentration of unknown protein solutions (Antharapally et.al, 2008). In the case of Coomassie blue, it is more efficient than Lowry because even though there is variation with different proteins, there is very less interference by non protein components (Borley, 2000). Therefore, according to literature, Coomassie Blue is the most preferred protein assay but this contrasts the experimental inferences, because through experimental procedure it was seen that Lowry method gave the most accurate and precise results. With this experiment, the method to quantify unknown protein concentrations has been understood. Also, that this process must be performed carefully to avoid irrational experimental errors. References: Antharavally B.S, Bell P.A, Haney P, Mallia K.A, Rangaraj P. 2008. Quantitation of proteins using a dye–metal-based colorimetric protein assay. Analytical Biochemistry. 385; 342-245. Boyer R, 2000. Modern Experimental Biochemistry, third edition. Addison-Wesley Longman, Inc. USA. (41-45). Lambert J.B, Gronert S, Lightner D.A, Shurvell H.F, 2011. Organic Structural Spectroscopy, second edition. Pearson Education, Inc, New Jersey. (401, 404) Srivastava M.L, 2008. Bioanalytical Techniques. Alpha Science International, Ltd. Oxford, UK. (58,118)

Reasons For the Bar Kochba Revolt

Reasons For the Bar Kochba Revolt Killing more than half a million Jews and destroying almost a thousand villages, the Bar Kochba Revolt (132-35) was a major event in Jewish history and a blotch on the reputation of the good emperor Hadrian. The revolt was named for a man called Shimon, on coins, Bar Kosibah, on papyrus, Bar Kozibah, on rabbinic literature, and Bar Kokhba, in Christian writing. Bar Kochba was the messianic leader of the rebel Jewish forces. The rebels may have held land south of Jerusalem and Jericho and north of Hebron and Masada. They may have reached into Samaria, Galilee, Syria, and Arabia. They survived (as long as they did) by means of caves, used for weapons storage and hiding, and tunnels. Letters from Bar Kochba were found in the caves of Wadi Murabbaat around the same time archaeologists and Bedouins were discovering the Dead Sea Scroll caves. [Source:​ The Dead Sea Scrolls: A Biography, by John J. Collins; Princeton: 2012.] The war was very bloody on both sides, so much so that Hadrian failed to declare a triumph when he returned to Rome at the revolts conclusion. Why Did the Jews Rebel? Why did the Jews rebel when it must have seemed likely the Romans would defeat them, as they had before? Suggested reasons are outrage over Hadrians prohibitions and actions. CircumcisionCircumcision was a vital part of the Jewish identity and it is possible Hadrian made it illegal for Jews to practice this custom, and not just with proselytes. In the Historia Augusta Pseudo-Spartianus says Hadrians prohibition against genital mutilation caused the revolt (Life of Harian 14.2). Genital mutilation could mean either castration or circumcision (or both). [Source: Peter Schafer The Bar Kochba Revolt and Circumcision: Historical Evidence and Modern Apologetics 1999]. This position is challenged. See: Negotiating Difference: Genital Mutilation in Roman Slave Law and the History of the Bar Kokhba Revolt, by Raanan Abusch, in The Bar Kokhba War Reconsidered: New Perspectives on the Second Jewish Revolt against Rome, edited by Peter Schafer; 2003. SacrilegeThe second to third century Greek-writing Roman historian Cassius Dio (Roman History 69.12) said it was Hadrians decision to rename Jerusalem Aelia Capitolina, to establish a Roman colony there, and to build a pagan temple. A complication of this is the possible retraction of a promise by Hadrian to rebuild the Jewish Temple. References: Axelrod, Alan. Little-Known Wars of Great and Latin Impact. Fair Winds Press, 2009. The Archaeology of Roman Palestine, by Mark Alan Chancey and Adam Lowry Porter. Near Eastern Archaeology, Vol. 64, No. 4 (Dec. 2001), pp. 164-203. The bar Kokhba Revolt: The Roman Point of View, by Werner Eck. The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 89 (1999), pp. 76-89 The Dead Sea Scrolls: A Biography, by John J. Collins; Princeton: 2012. Peter Schafer The Bar Kochba Revolt and Circumcision: Historical Evidence and Modern Apologetics 1999

Themes of Education Migration and the Next Generation in the African American Communities of Youngblood The Street and The Piano Lesson essays

Themes of Education Migration and the Next Generation in the African American Communities of Youngblood The Street and The Piano Lesson essays Education of the next generation forms a core, central theme in many of the greatest works of literature, particularly those of the African- American tradition where the next generation holds such promise for those oppressed by the historical weight of the present. However, in the narrative framework of the novels Youngblood by John Oliver Killens Ann Petry's The Street, as well the play "The Piano Lesson," it is not only the youth of tomorrow whom receives an education from their wiser elders. Although the older individuals in the play educate the younger members of the family, ultimately the education in all fictional contexts is holistic, rather than an unbalanced relationship of old teaching morality to young. In all of the family structures presented, the protagonists are children, more or less, if not in years, than in certain dearly held but false assumptions they have about life and their place in history. The role of education in the African-American experience is particularly critical to all of the protagonists, as all members of the family must receive an education about their role in a society that has marginalized them and continues to marginalize them because of their race, as well as their role in the African-American community of America. One of the most profound teaching tools, the earliest of the novels suggests, comes through is the medium of migration. In John Oliver Killen's novel, entitled, Youngblood, the titular family's history is chronicled over nearly a half century. The novel begins in the Deep South. However, one of the most potent figures in the novel is that of Richard Myles, a New York teacher. The idea that education and the North are conjoined strikes a strong chord in the minds of many of the younger members of the next generations of Youngbloods. The younger Youngbloods, although the respect the family patriarch, believe tha...

Is War Ethical Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

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Outline, Thesis, and Introduction Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Outline, Thesis, and Introduction - Coursework Example Review of Literature – evaluates and summarizes relevant information from the identified secondary sources regarding legalization of marijuana in the United States. Findings – stipulates highlights of findings from secondary sources and from interviews Recommendations Conclusion References Introduction The use of marijuana as a medical tool has been subject to controversy with regards to the benefits and costs to the users and to society. Various researches have supported its use for medical purposes and interviews with patients have validated preferences to its use in contrast to the traditional medications. Contemporary statistics have revealed that there are currently 16 states plus Washington, DC that have enacted laws legalizing the use of marijuana for medical purposes, of which California, has been listed among its roster since 1996 (ProCon, 2011). The current research aims to proffer issues and concerns regarding the legalization of marijuana for medical purpose s.